The idea that some supernatural being imbued humans with spoken language. The drawback with this theory
is that tests have failed to uncover any "spontaneous" language, and there are many spoken languages.
Natural Sound Source Theory
The idea that early humans imitated the sounds they heard or used sounds uttered in specific circumstances
to become words for those animals, objects, or emotions.
bow-wow theory
natural sound source theory specifically in the case of animal/object sounds that were
imitated and developed into words. A drawback of this theory is that it does not account for things that
do not make sounds, abstract concepts, or grammatical terms.
pooh-pooh theory
natural sound source theory specifically in the case of exclamations uttered in specific
circumstances (e.g. "ouch!") that then come to stand for the circumstance or emotion.
onomatopoeia
rhetorical term for the class of words that are named after their sound (e.g. swish, zoom, woof, etc.)
Musical Source Theory
The idea that because infants produce and respond to sounds with melody and intonation before they learn speech, musical
sounds transformed into speech. The drawback with this theory is that there is no explanation of why humans alone of all
animals that make songs transitioned to meaningful spoken language.
intonation
specific features of the tone of sounds
Social Interaction Source Theory
The idea that humans developed language because they began to live in communities and needed to perform cooperative tasks.
This theory addresses the motive for developing language, but is less specific about how language developed.
yo-he-ho theory
Social interaction theory that specifically posits that sounds made while doing something that required physical effort that was communal
and needed to be coordinated became meaningful words that developed into language
Physical Adaptation Source Theory
The idea that evolutionary changes related to humans development of bipedal locomotion facilitated spoken language. This theory
explains the mechanics of speech and how the physiology of the mouth, lips, teeth, tongue, larynx, and pharynx are related to
the creation of sounds used in spoken language; however, this theory does not address motive and these changes cannot be asserted as the
cause of spoken language--though they are necessary for the types of language we have developed.
larynx
voice box. In humans, this feature is lower than in other primates because we walk upright.
pharynx
the tube that connects the mouth to the larynx. In humans it is longer than in other primates because
we walk upright.
Tool-Making Source Theory
Idea that once humans started using tools, their hands were busy, so they needed to develop other methods--specifically
spoken language--to communicate during cooperative tasks. This theory is supported by brain research that has shown that the parts of the
brain active in using hand tools and in speaking are close together and in the same hemisphere. The drawback of this theory is that
it is unknown whether the close location of these things in the brain means anything about these capacities being related.
Genetic Source Theory
Idea that once the human brain developed a certain level of sophistocation--aided by evolutionary changes related to walking
upright--the capacity for language developed; it is coded into human genetics and, when triggered by experience, will develop
naturally. This theory is widely accepted by linguists and neuroscientists and is supported by the discovery of the Foxp2 gene, which
is thought to be one of the genes related to language development. The drawback of this theory is that it is difficult to test
and not enough is known about the function of the brain to confirm it definitively.
inateness hyphothesis
something in human genetics is the source of language in humans
Chapter 16: Written Language
Definitions
pictogram
drawings that mean the thing they represent
ideogram
drawings that began as representational, but have shifted to mean (also or instead) an abstract concept related to the original representation
logogram
symbols that do not directly correlate to the meaning that they have, but that represent a thing or concept (rather than a sound)
rebus principle
when a symbol shifts from representing a thing to representing a sound in the name of that thing
phonographic writing
system of written symbols that correlate to sounds; this type of writing requires many fewer symbols, and so generally facilitates literacy
syllabic writing system
type of phonographic writing system where symbols represent a collection of sounds that are valid syllables in the language
alphabetic writing system
type of phonographic writing system where symbols represent individual phonemes. English orthography is an alphabetic system
orthography
the written characters that represent sounds or meaning in a language. English orthography is represented through a 26 letter alphabet,
but there are inconsistencies in how these symbols are used to represent sounds.
Chapter 4: The Sounds and Patterns of Language
phoneme
the idealized version of a sound. the notation for a phoneme is // -- e.g. /s/
phone
the actual articulation of a phoneme by a language user in a specific situation. The notation for a phone is [] -- e.g. [s]
allophone
the set of all valid phones that belong to a certain phoneme
syllable
a unit of multiple sounds that are the building blocks of words. Syllables are composed of an onset and a rime
and may be open or closed.
onset
the opening sound of a syllable; in English, this is typically a consonant sound
rime (aka rhyme)
the closing sound of a syllable. The rime is composed of a nucleus (required) and a coda (optional)
nucleus
the vowel sound that "carries" a syllable; every syllable must have one, though in English the orthographic notation for this sound may not
always be a vowel letter (e.g., y)
coda
an ending consonant sound in a syllable. Syllables do not need a coda to be complete.
open syllable
syllable without a coda
closed syllable
syllable with a coda
minimal pairs
two words that are identical in sound except for one phoneme that is in the same position in both words--for example, the opening phoneme in pig and fig.
Minimal pairs illustrate the boundaries of phonemic difference that result in changes in differentiated phonemes (and therefore differences in meaning)
minimal set
collection of words that are minimally differentiated by a single phoneme in the same position--for example, fig, pig, twig, big, jig, dig, rig. Minimal sets may have other
valid members in terms of the possible sounds in a language--for example stig or lig in the preceeding example, but not all members of the set may be valid words
that currently have meaning.
coarticulation effects
phenomena in actual spoken language where phonemes in words are changed to facilitate prounciation. Systematic coarticulation effects by defined groups that
over time lead to systematic language changes can contribute to the development of dialects.
assimilation
effect where a sound is copied from one sound segment to a sequential one--for example, the /v/ in "I have to go" being pronounced as "I havta go"
nasilization
effect that usually affects vowel pronunciation: specifically, the vowel is pronounced in a more nasal form--for example, prnouncing "I can go" as
"I kin go"
elision
effect where a sound sequence is dropped; this effect often affects stops. For example, pronouncing "friendship" as "frenship" or "interest" as "intrest"
Chapter 17: Language History and Change
language family tree
diagram of a related group of languages and their relationships
to each other as they developed over time
Proto-Indo-European (PIE)
The reconstructed languages that was the distant origin language to all
Indo-European languages. That would include Romantic and Germanic languages
(like English) as well as all Indo-Iranian languages (like Sansrkit). PIE was
in use approximately 6000 years ago and earlier; there are no surviving written
examples of this language--possibly because it transformed into several
"younger" languages before writing was invented--and it is unknown what the
spoken form sounded like. However, through techniques of
comparative
reconstruction
scholars have deduced features of the grammar and the
lexicon (words, concepts) of this language.
comparative reconstruction
comparing several known, related languages in order to deduce the
features of an earlier common ancestor languge.
majority principle
principle of comparative reconstruction; in a comparison,
the sound common to the majority of the languages was the sound used in the
ancestor language
most natural development principle
principle of comparative reconstruction; certain sound
changes are common to language change, so these common changes can be used
to project backwards to earlier forms of a language.
internal language change
a systematic shift in pronounciation or use within a language that happens
over time. The "great vowel shift" in English is an example. It may not be known
why these changes take place, but the rules of the changes themselves can be
observed and documented.
external language change
systematic change in a language triggered by an external change such as
cultural contact that results in accomodation or ingratiation. The Norman
Conquest of 1066 is an example of external language change in the history of
the development of the English language.
sound changes
types of typical alterations in language pronounciation
sound loss
dropping a sound from the pronounciation of a word. So called
"silent" letters in English orthography frequently indicate that sound
loss has taken place.
metathesis
reversal of postion of two sounds, for example,
OE /frist/ → ModE /first/
epenthesis
addition of a sound to the middle of a word; e.g
ME /spinel/ → ModE /spindle/
prothesis
addition of a sound to the beginning of a word; e.g.
Latin scribere → Spansih escribir ("to write")
syntactic changes
changes to the allowable structures of a language--for example, changing
from gendered nouns to ungendered nouns
semantic changes
changes to the meanings of words
broadening
change to a word's meaning where it begins to mean
a broader concept than it originally did
narrowing
change to a word's meaning where it begins to signify a
narrow concept than it originally did
diachronic variation
changes in language over time
synchronic variation
changes in language use among different groups within the same time frame--
a snapshot of language variation and use among different speakers (often
across distinct geographical areas)
ideas and assumptions about the nature of things and people that we learn when we become the members of social groups
category
group with certain features in common; when we learn new things, we categorize them according to classifications we
already know
lexicalized categories
concepts that can be described with a single term; for example, color terms--red, yellow, green, etc. are an example of a
lexicalized grouping that describes the culturally-specific classification scheme for color.
linguistic determinism
the idea that if a concept is not named in a language, it cannot be understood/perceived by the speakers of that language.
This idea began as the Sapir-Wolf hypothesis based on the work of scholars researching the languages of tribes in the Arctic.
linguistic relativity
idea that is dominant among contemporary scholars that the lexical categories of a language describes and influences the world-view/perspective
of the speakers of that language.
Chapter 5: Word Formation
neologism
general term for a new word that becomes accepted and used in a language. There are many different ways that new words are
formed.
etymology
the history of a word, including the history of where its antecedants were borrowed from (if applicable) or how it was
coined (if know). Diachronic dictionaries, like the Oxford English Dictionary, record etymologies in detail. Most dictionaries will
provide at least a brief etymology for words.
borrowing
importing a word, including its orthography, from one language into another one. (e.g. kindergarten)
loan translation or calque
importing a word or concept, but with a literal translation of its components, from one language into another one. (e.g. importing Ger. Wolkenkratz as "sky scraper")
compounding
combining 2 or more words to form a new, single word. In English, compounding sometimes begins with a hyphenated form before
the compound as a single word is adopted.
blending
combining 2 words to form a new, single word, but through a process of combinding the beginning of one word with the
ending of another word. Also called a portmanteau. (e.g. breakfast + lunch = brunch)
clipping
forming a new word by shortening an existing word
hypocorism
type of clipping where after a word is shortened, an -ie or -y is added. This word formation strategy is seen more in
British English (e.g. telly, brekie)
backformation
type of clipping where a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb) e.g.: automation → automate
conversion
when a word shifts from one part of speech to another.
coinage
terms invented "from scratch" that come in to common use
eponym
type of coinage where the new word is based on a proper noun--often the name of a person
acronym
type of coinage where the new word is created by taking the first letter of a series of words
derivation
units of meaning are added to an existing word to alter the meaning. affixes are typically used in derivations.
affix
morphemes that can be used to transform the meanings of existing words
preffix
type of affix attached to the beginning of a word to create a derivation
suffix
type of affix attached to the end of a word to create a derviation
infix
type of affix inserted into the middle of a word to create a derviation. Infixes are rarely used in English
Chapter 18: Regional Variation in Language
accent
the individual patterns of language use by actual users.
dialect
systematic patterns in language use that diverge from "standard" within
an defined group of speakers (often defined geographically)
isogloss
systematic differences in diction (word choice) by a definted group of
speakers
dialect boundary
geographical location where language use patterns change. Dialect
boundaries can be identified by charting the use of isoglosses
pidgin
a contact language created when speakers of two different
languages each make accomodations in order to be understood. The resulting
language is organized around a specific task or practical purpose, and
may not account for large other areas of language use. There are no
native speakers of a pigin language.
creole
a contact language that may begin as a pigin or as a result
of a language use mandate by one culture on another that blends two
languages and ends up as a fully functional language in its own right. Creoles
endure over generations, meaning that eventually there are native speakers.
language planning
creating infrastructure (road signs, system of interpreters, etc) and
analysis based on the language needs of a community.
AAVE, AAE
African-American Vernacular English, African-American English. One of many valid dialects of English.
EAE
Edited American English. The prestige version of English.
speech community
People who share a set of norms and expectations in how language is used
sociolinguistics
study of the connection between language and society
sociolects
speech differentiations influenced by a speaker's class
ideolect
speech differentiations influenced by a speaker's native langugae,
educational background, occupation, and parent or primary caregiver's ideolect
social marker
distinctive speech sound that correlates with high precision to a person's class status
speech style
the selection of words and phrases based on the level of formality desired;
also described in terms of "careful" or "casual" speech
overt prestige
the explicit preference for a certain dialect, for example strictly
grading papers for grammatical errors to enforce the conventions
of standard English
covert prestige
the implicit preference for a certain dialect, for example,
a speaker may choose to use AAVE, even though it is marginalized
compared to EAE, in order to demonstrate pride in membership in the African-American community.
accomodation
working to bridge misunderstandings by changing one's
speech style
style-shifting or code switching
the ability to move between registers or speech styles depending
on the discursive situation. For non-dominant groups in a society,
style-shifting may be necessary to access the prestige dialect
of communication.
register
conventional way of using language in a specific situational,
occupational, or topical context
jargon
special technical vocabulary of a specific occupation or situation
slang
words or prhases used by younger speakers or other groups with a special interest
taboo
words or phrases that are typically avoided because they are deliberately provoking, controversial, or judged to be "out of bounds" by social conventions.
vernacular
non-standard spoken version of a language. Vernaculars may
have distinct grammars from standard versions of a language.
Chapter 10: Pragmatics
pragmatics
study of what speakers mean as language is used
in context
invisible meaning
meaning that is understood but not said or written
physical context
literal surroundings of a text that provide information, e.g. "Exit" sign placed over a door
linguistic context/cotext
context of an utterance based on the words around it
deictic expressions
"pointing" expressions: these need to be in context
in order to be understood
person deixis
pronouns and phrases that point to specific
people
spatial deixis
words like "here" or "there" that point to
something in space/location
temporal deixis
words like "yeterday" or "tomorrow" that
point to something in time
range of reference
the possible spectrum of available meanings that make sense
in a given context
inference
information used by a listener to make sense of the
meaning encoded by a speaker
antecedant
specific person, place, or thing that a pronoun or
deictic phrase refers to
anaphora
pattern of reference where a more general pronoun, noun,
or noun phrase is substituted for an antecedant in a subsequent
reference
cataphora
pattern of reference where a more general pronoun, noun,
or noun phrase is substituted for an antecedant in a preceeding
reference; this structure is rarely used in English
presupposition
underlying assumptions evident in an utterance
direct speech acts
using the appropriate form to suit a communication purpose,
so, using a question (interrogative) to elicit information, for example.
indirect speech acts
using a form that does not directly address the purpose
of a communication--for example, using a question (interrogative)
instead of a command
to request an action out of politeness
pragmatic markers
words or phrases the function to convey meaning apart from the literal words
of the utterance: for example, placeholders "um" and "uh" and affirmatory
questions like "right?" are examples of pragmatic markers.
face
A person's public, social persona.
face saving discourse
colloquially, this can be thought of as politeness: communications that help preserve
others' face--e.g. prevent embarrassment or promote positive self-image.
face threatening discourse
discourse that challenges someone's public self-image: for example, discourse that
shames or embarrasses another person; the use of direct commands rather than requests, etc.
Chapter 11: Discourse Analysis
discourse analysis
analyzing the nature of communications on a larger scale
and evaluating how they are effective and why.
cohesion
how thoughts connect to one another
cohesive ties
the discursive markers that connect one idea to another to
maintain consistency of reference or conceptual meaning
coherence
the overall connection of ideas in a whole text or conversation
turns/turn taking
the conversation practice of alternating between speakers.
Each speech act or utterance is a turn, and speakers practice
turn-taking, or the alteration between them based on mutually
understood rules.
completion points
linguistic or other signals that indicate one speaker has
finished their turn
adjacency pair
a question-answer pair that is almost automatic, governed
by conventions that are well-known in a discourse community--for
example, "how are you?" "fine"
insertion sequence
intervening information that interrupts the start and
end of an adjacency pair
Grice's Co-Operation Principle
the basic idea that people attempt to communicate in ways
that will be understood and work to understand those they
listen to/read. The principle has 4 maxims.
Quantity
provide enough information; no more, no less
Quality
communicate in good faith; say what is true or
what is believed (to the best knowledge of the speaker) to be
true
Relation
say what is relevant to the point at hand
Manner
be clear, brief, and orderly in the form of
communication
hedge
words or phrases that indicate uncertainty
implicature
extra information conveyed through a response; it requires
the listener to be able to understand that meaning from what is
said. If there is a clear implicature, then the listener will
make an accurate inference
cultural schema
framework based on a dominant discourse in a specific cultural
context that speakers use to classify (and therefore understand)
information
cultural scripts
the expected actions or steps or shape of a text or
utterance that fits within a specific cultural schema.
a single form of a morpheme that has multiple
forms
allomorph
all of the forms of a specific morphemic function
free morpheme
morphemes that can stand alone as words
bound morpheme
morphemes that have meaning but must be connected
to other morphemes in order to function. Affixes are
examples of bound mormphemes.
lexical morphemes
morphemes that carry conceptual meaning; this is an
open set, meaning there is theoretically an infinite number
of these morphemes. When new words are added to the language,
they are typically of this type. They are these parts of
speech: N, V, ADJ, ADV
functional morphemes
morphemes the perform the grammatical functions of
language; these are a closed set, and it is rare for
new words to be added to this set. They are these
parts of language: articles, conjunctions, prepositions, and pronouns.
derivational morphemes
prefixes, suffixes, and infixes used to derive new words
from exisiting words by adding particles of meaning.
inflectional morphemes
used to show a grammatical state, like plurality,
possession, or verb tense.
Chapter 8: Syntax
syntax
ordering of components in language; structure rules
of a language
syntactic analysis
study of the structures of language
generative grammar
creating a set of rules that can be used to generate
sentence structures rather than just describe them.
surface structure
order of words in a sentence as written (and study of that
order)
deep structure
conceptual structure of a sentence; units of meaning, which
can be independent of the written form.
structureal ambiguity
more than one meaning in a sentence due to different
interpretations of structure. This is different from
lexical ambiguity, which is based on a word that
has more than one meaning (e.g. a pun)
phrase structure
formula for describing the structure of a specific
type of phrase.
Chapter 7: Grammar
parts of speech
traditional grammar labels for identifying
specific grammatical functions of words
noun
person, place, or thing
verb
action or state of being
adjective
describing word
adverb
who, what, when, where, how, etc.
article
grammatical word that precedes a noun
conjunction
grammatical word that links componentes
of a sentence
pronoun
grammatical word that stands in for a noun
preposition
grammatical word that shows how elements
of a noun phrase are related to a clause in terms of
time, manner, place, descriptor, etc.
grammatical agreement
alignment between pronouns and their antecedants in
terms of gender, number, and person
subject verb agreement
alignment between subjects and their verbs in terms
of number
prescriptive grammar
approach to grammar that begins with a set of rules
and then seeks to enforce them
descriptive grammar
approach to grammar where the rules are determined
through observation of language users and documentation
of the systems they use.
structural analysis
use of different test frames to establish usage
boundaries to identify use cases and then define
classes of words or phrases.
constituent analysis
parsing pieces of a sentence as a native speaker
would likely do--or collecting data from native speakers
about how they would parse sentences.