Where did "OK" first come from, and how was it popularized?
What were some of the different meanings that the term had
in early days? What social discourses was it used in?
How did technology play a part in the transition of "OK" from
slang to standard English?
How did the typography, or appearance of the letters, play
a part in the persistence of "OK"?
What is meant by "neutral affirmative?"
Today, the video argues, people barely notice the use of "OK."
Do you think this helps or hurts its continued persistence as part
of the language?
Analysis
Think about your use of "ok"--when do you use it and why? Are there
different meanings to your different uses of "ok" (for example, are there different meanings
in your mind/use for ok vs. okay vs OK?).
Explain. Then comment on whether you agree this is "the ultimate neutral affirmative."
What does this example of the development of "ok" suggest about at least one way language
changes?
What does this example suggest about the connection between
language and culture/society?
What does this example suggest about the role of media and
technology in language change?
How might these social and technological language change
processes be happening today? Explain.
Unit 1: Language Development
Week 1: Wednesday 1/12
Reading:
Yule, Study of Language (herafter SL) Chapter 1 (pp. 1-7)
Exercise
Work with your group to present the different hypothoses about
the development of language.
Group A: "Divine Source" theory and "Natural Sound Source" theory
Group B: "Musical Source" theory and "Social Interaction Source" theory
Group C: "Physical Adaptation Source" theory (be sure to address all 3 components)
Group D: "Tool-Making Source" theory and "Genetic Source" theory
All members of the group should present some part of the content. In your presentation, you should include:
The main idea of the theory
Strengths of each theory
Weaknesses/limitations of each theory
Key vocabulary terms related to the theory: identify and explain the meaning in your own words (these may be introduced and
explained throughout the presentation)
Analysis
What theory or combination of theories seems most persuasive to you and why?
Why is it so difficult to answer the question of language origins--consider in particular some of the ways
people have tried to test these hypothoses in the past.
Do you think the question of the origin of language will ever have a definitive answer--why or why not?
Noam Chomsky explains the innateness hypothosis (4:00-8:00)
Unit 1: Language Development
Week 2: Monday 1/17
MLK Day--No Class
Unit 1: Language Development
Week 2: Wednesday 1/19
Reading:
Yule, Study of Language (herafter SL) Chapter 16 Written Language (pp. 247-255)
Chapter 16 Reading Concepts
Definitions
pictogram
drawings that mean the thing they represent
ideogram
drawings that began as representational, but have shifted to mean (also or instead) an abstract concept related to the original representation
logogram
symbols that do not directly correlate to the meaning that they have, but that represent a thing or concept (rather than a sound)
rebus principle
when a symbol shifts from representing a thing to representing a sound in the name of that thing
phonographic writing
system of written symbols that correlate to sounds; this type of writing requires many fewer symbols, and so generally facilitates literacy
syllabic writing system
type of phonographic writing system where symbols represent a collection of sounds that are valid syllables in the language
alphabetic writing system
type of phonographic writing system where symbols represent individual phonemes. English orthography is an alphabetic system
orthography
the written characters that represent sounds or meaning in a language. English orthography is represented through a 26 letter alphabet,
but there are inconsistencies in how these symbols are used to represent sounds.
Analysis
Explain how the use of a character-based system compared to a phonographic
system of writing could be connected to cultural differences; consider for example why
vocabularies are more extensive in phonographic systems and how the reproduction of texts written
in these systems differ -- and how that in turn might affect literacy rates.
Your textbook says that English is "alphabetic in a very loose sense" (244). List as many examples as you can where a single phoneme
(sound) is represented with different written characters, or orthography. Do you think that the written forms will change to match the
sounds in the future? Why or why not? And, if so, what changes do you think will be the first to take place (or already in progress)? Why?
It could be argued that our culture is tending towards more pictograms in certain communication situations. Identify such
situations and explain why images may be preferable to speech--what does this suggest about that communication situation? About our society more generally?
Find/draw some examples of common pictograms that are readily used today:
What are the pros and cons of our culture tending towards more images and fewer words in written communications?
In-Class #1: Development of Written English
As noted in your text, English orthography often does not correlate neatly to the sounds of words. We will investigate the reasons
for this in Unit 2. In this exercise, you will analyze texts in English from the beginning of mechanical printing (approx. 1474) through the early
nineteenth century to chart changes in orthography, or the written aspects of a language;
in this exercise, we will use the more technical definition of this term from Coffin and O'Halloran, "Describing English": orthography "describes the set of symbols
used in any particular writing system... is also concerned with the rules for writing the symbols (descriptively rather than prescriptively, though)... and
may include punctuation, spelling, and capitalisation" (16). (Note that this definition includes more elements than the definition in Chapter 16).
Part 1: First Book Printed in English
Refer to the excerpts from The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye,
which was the first book published on the first printing press in England by William Caxton. This version is a reprint from 1894, but it includes facsimile pages from the original 1474 edition.
Focus on these reproductions of the original. Access the pages from the 1474 edition in Canvas → Files → ic01.
Describe the font that is used in this first printed book. What does it remind you of? Do you have any ideas about
why it would look this way?
List spellings that are different than today--show how the word is spelled in Caxton's text and the modern spelling:
List differences in how letters are represented on the page compared to modern type:
List differences in punctuation compared to modern usage--what different punctuation marks do you see? How are they used?
List spellings that are different than today; look in particular for words that you noted in Part 1
List differences in how letters are represented on the page compared to modern type:
List differences in punctuation compared to modern usage:
List differences in page layout or other conventions:
Part 3: Analysis
Examine each of your lists and compare among all of the texts over time (Part 1 and Part 2). Describe some key changes that you can see take place
that mark the modernization of any of the elements of orthography you analyzed:
Noam Chomsky explains the innateness hypothosis (4:00-8:00)
Unit 1: Language Development
Week 1: Monday 1/24
Reading:
SL Chapter 4: The Sounds Patterns of Language (pp. 44-51)
SL Chapter 17: Language History and Change (pp. 262-272)
Chapter 4 Reading Concepts
Group A: Explain the relationship between phonemes, phones, and allophones
Group B: Explain what a minimal pair and a minimal set are in your own words, and be sure to explain
how sound is related to meaning in understanding these concepts.
Group C: Explain the makeup of a syllable, including the difference between open and closed syllables.
Group D: Explain these different coarticulation effects: assimilation, nasalization, and elision
Analysis
What does the information in this chapter suggest about the relationship between the idea of a language and language in use by actual speakers?
What does the variety in articulation of language and, nonetheless, the ability of speakers to communicate, suggest about "correctness" in spoken
language?
Give some examples of valid consonant clusters in English; give some examples of invalid consonant clusters in English. What does the fact that
we can easily identify these two types suggest about English--and perhaps other languages?
Chapter 17 Reading Concepts
Group A: Explain the concept of a language family tree and why these trees are important
Group B: Explain what Proto-Indo-European is and why it is important.
Group C: Explain the majority principle and most natural development principle as principles of comparative reconstruction.
Group D: Explain the difference between external and internal language changes.
Group A: Explain the difference among these types of sound changes: metathesis, epenthesis, and prothesis.
Group B: Explain the difference between syntactic and semantic changes
Group C: Explain broadening and narrowing meaning
as types of semantic changes.
Group D: Explain the difference between diachronic and synchronic variation.
Analysis
What does the ability of linguists to identify family tress and reconstruct languages that are no longer spoken suggest about the process of language
development?
It could be said that the story of the development of English is a story of cultural contact. Explain.
How might the development of English, and the features it has compared to related Germanic languages or heavily borrowed from Romantic/Latinate languages,
contribute to its wide-spread use today?
Unit 1: Language Development
Week 2: Wednesday 1/26
Definitions
Chapter 4: The Sounds and Patterns of Language
phoneme
the idealized version of a sound. the notation for a phoneme is // -- e.g. /s/
phone
the actual articulation of a phoneme by a language user in a specific situation. The notation for a phone is [] -- e.g. [s]
allophone
the set of all valid phones that belong to a certain phoneme
syllable
a unit of multiple sounds that are the building blocks of words. Syllables are composed of an onset and a rime
and may be open or closed.
onset
the opening sound of a syllable; in English, this is typically a consonant sound
rime (aka rhyme)
the closing sound of a syllable. The rime is composed of a nucleus (required) and a coda (optional)
nucleus
the vowel sound that "carries" a syllable; every syllable must have one, though in English the orthographic notation for this sound may not
always be a vowel letter (e.g., y)
coda
an ending consonant sound in a syllable. Syllables do not need a coda to be complete.
open syllable
syllable without a coda
closed syllable
syllable with a coda
minimal pairs
two words that are identical in sound except for one phoneme that is in the same position in both words--for example, the opening phoneme in pig and fig.
Minimal pairs illustrate the boundaries of phonemic difference that result in changes in differentiated phonemes (and therefore differences in meaning)
minimal set
collection of words that are minimally differentiated by a single phoneme in the same position--for example, fig, pig, twig, big, jig, dig, rig. Minimal sets may have other
valid members in terms of the possible sounds in a language--for example stig or lig in the preceeding example, but not all members of the set may be valid words
that currently have meaning.
coarticulation effects
phenomena in actual spoken language where phonemes in words are changed to facilitate prounciation. Systematic coarticulation effects by defined groups that
over time lead to systematic language changes can contribute to the development of dialects.
assimilation
effect where a sound is copied from one sound segment to a sequential one--for example, the /v/ in "I have to go" being pronounced as "I havta go"
nasilization
effect that usually affects vowel pronunciation: specifically, the vowel is pronounced in a more nasal form--for example, prnouncing "I can go" as
"I kin go"
elision
effect where a sound sequence is dropped; this effect often affects stops. For example, pronouncing "friendship" as "frenship" or "interest" as "intrest"
Chapter 17: Language History and Change
language family tree
diagram of a related group of languages and their relationships
to each other as they developed over time
Proto-Indo-European (PIE)
The reconstructed languages that was the distant origin language to all
Indo-European languages. That would include Romantic and Germanic languages
(like English) as well as all Indo-Iranian languages (like Sansrkit). PIE was
in use approximately 6000 years ago and earlier; there are no surviving written
examples of this language--possibly because it transformed into several
"younger" languages before writing was invented--and it is unknown what the
spoken form sounded like. However, through techniques of
comparative
reconstruction
scholars have deduced features of the grammar and the
lexicon (words, concepts) of this language.
comparative reconstruction
comparing several known, related languages in order to deduce the
features of an earlier common ancestor languge.
majority principle
principle of comparative reconstruction; in a comparison,
the sound common to the majority of the languages was the sound used in the
ancestor language
most natural development principle
principle of comparative reconstruction; certain sound
changes are common to language change, so these common changes can be used
to project backwards to earlier forms of a language.
internal language change
a systematic shift in pronounciation or use within a language that happens
over time. The "great vowel shift" in English is an example. It may not be known
why these changes take place, but the rules of the changes themselves can be
observed and documented.
external language change
systematic change in a language triggered by an external change such as
cultural contact that results in accomodation or ingratiation. The Norman
Conquest of 1066 is an example of external language change in the history of
the development of the English language.
sound changes
types of typical alterations in language pronounciation
sound loss
dropping a sound from the pronounciation of a word. So called
"silent" letters in English orthography frequently indicate that sound
loss has taken place.
metathesis
reversal of postion of two sounds, for example,
OE /frist/ → ModE /first/
epenthesis
addition of a sound to the middle of a word; e.g
ME /spinel/ → ModE /spindle/
prothesis
addition of a sound to the beginning of a word; e.g.
Latin scribere → Spansih escribir ("to write")
syntactic changes
changes to the allowable structures of a language--for example, changing
from gendered nouns to ungendered nouns
semantic changes
changes to the meanings of words
broadening
change to a word's meaning where it begins to mean
a broader concept than it originally did
narrowing
change to a word's meaning where it begins to signify a
narrow concept than it originally did
diachronic variation
changes in language over time
synchronic variation
changes in language use among different groups within the same time frame--
a snapshot of language variation and use among different speakers (often
across distinct geographical areas)
In-Class #2: Historical Changes in English
This week, we've discussed the development of English. In this exercise, we'll explore the differences between Middle English and Modern English in more detail.
Work with your group on excerpts as assigned below. Access exerpts in the "ic02" folder in the Files tool in Canvas.
Group A: Excerpts from "Knight's Tale" (Chaucer and Dryden)
Group B: Excerpts from "Knight's Tale" (Chaucer and Dryden)
Group C: Excerpts from "Wife of Bath's Tale" (Chaucer and Dryden)
Group D: Excerpts from "Wife of Bath's Prologue" (Chaucer and Pope)
Analyze the Middle English version of the passage, found in the "01MiddleEnglish" folder of your group's area in Files in Canvas, and note orthographicalpatterns that
are unlike modern English. For example, y is a common prefix to verbs: ycleped. This week, we're interested not just to see there are different looking letters, but we're
analyzing what different spellings and patterns in the written form of the language can tell us about differences in meaning and cultural logic.
Find examples of word changes to illustrate at least 2 of these principles described in your text: sound loss, metathesis, epenthesis
Using your Middle English sample and the modern english adaptation in the "02Adaptation" folder in your group's area in Files in Canvas, identify cognate terms between the two texts.
Remember, cognates are words that are clearly related between two languages. For example, ME wif
or wyf and English wife are cognates (you can't use this one). If any of your words are cognates in terms of form but have different meanings, be sure to note this. List 4 examples of cognates.
As you consider the changes in meaning between cognates, note if there was broadening or narrowing in meaning.
Identify terms or phrases between the two texts that are not cognates but seem to convey the same meaning. Choose 1 pair of words to examine in more detail: what are the differences in
meaning because of these different word choices? You may look up terms in the diachronicOxford English Dictionary (OED)
to help with precise historical meanings of words.
Identify at least two syntactic changes--that is, differences in the way a sentence is constructed, between the ME and modern English texts.
Analyze the effect and significance of this difference, and explain what this might reveal about grammatical conventions ME and English.
ie or ee instead of y: chivalrie, countree, suretee
doubled vowels, oo, ee, aa: moost, noon (as in no one), oother, coost, heere, maad -- Note:
a larger proportion of the ees have survived in modern usage (cheer, been, seen)
doubled consonants between 2 vowels: womman, conseillyng, welle, selle, somme, weddeNote:
when the final "e" falls away, the double consonant at the end of the word tends to be retained in modern useage, while "extra" middle consonants fall out of use.
-ynge instead of -ing: lyvynge, weddynge, comynge
y instead of i: kyng, lyven, myn, nyce
y- suffix on verbs: yclepped, ylymed, yflatered, yplesed, ywrought
cioun intead of tion or sion: opprecioun
ou becomes o in American English; note that the ou is retained in many cases in British English (e.g. governour, conquerour, *honour)
oo can be used as an opening syllable (e.g. oother)
aa as a valid vowel cluster (e.g. staat)
eth inflection on verbs: telleth, speketh, renneth, etc.
ME → Modern English sound changes
sound loss
final e is dropped (e.g. housbonde becomes husband)
kn becomes /n/ (e.g. knyght)
gh in the middle of words becomes silent (e.g. wight)
regne becomes pronounced like "rain"
opprecioun becomes oppression
waymentynge becomes lamenting (note the shift from w to l as well)
fayeryes becomes faires
morwenynges becomes mornings
bacheler becomes bachelor (pro bachler)*
metathesis
toures becomes towers
swich becomes such
widwe or wydwe becomes widow
morwe becomes morrow
bisye becomes busy
swowned becomes swooned
membres becomes members
epenthesis
saufly becomes softly
maystow becomes mayst thou
hastow becomes hast thou
tour becomes tower
tweye becomes two (pronounced too)
wayke becomes weak
Cognates
ME quod → Eng. quote
this is an example of narrowing: "quod" meant generally "said/says" and modern "quote" means a direct quotation
ME swynke → Eng. sweat
this is an example of narrowing: "swynke" meant work, and "sweat" is clearly narrower--but an interesting example of
cultural logic when you think about how "sweat" is related to work.
ME sooth → Eng. truth
Meaning is approximately equivalent, but note that the ME form "sooth," while it no longer exists in modern English, it is preserved
in the compound "soothsayer."
ME wight → Eng. wight
ME meaning is very generally "person." The modern version of this word means a supernatural spirit.
ME bacheler → Eng. bachelor
this is an example of broadening: "bacheler" meant specifically a young knight, now it's any unmarried man
ME mayde → Eng. maid
this is an example of broadening: "mayde" was an unmarried and pure young woman; now any young woman. What about
the use of this term to mean someone who cleans?
ME virginetee → Eng. virginity
this term used to be sign of moral purity and sexually "unspoiled"; now it's a more technical term for the physical features of a
woman who has not had sex. It's still problematic.
Syntax Changes
Negation
I nam nat precius [*nam = blending of not + am] = lit. I am not not precious
But he ne koude arryven in no coost = lit. But he never could arrive at no cost
Of myn estaat I nyl nat make no boost [*nyl = blending of not + will] = lit. Of my estate I will not make no boast
Verb Structure
By hym shul othere men corrected be = lit. By him should other men corrected be
Unnethe myghte they the statut holde = lit. Hardly mighty they the statute hold
This structure where auxilliary verbs are in second position and main verbs
are shifted to the end is part of the Germanic inheritance of English: this structure
is still used in modern German today.
T/V Distinction
I to yow = lit. I to you
Be ware of it, ere thou to ny approach = Be wary of it [before] you too neigh [near] approach
Setence Pattern
They had me yeven hir lond and her tresoor = lit. They had me given their land and their treasure = S-V-IO-V-DO (compound DO)
Al were it good no womman for to touche = lit. Always was it good no woman for to touch = V-S-SC
he ful soone hem sente to Atthens = lit. he full soone him sent to Athens S-ADV-O-V
Contractions
contractions with "not" are formed by blending not + verb/modal: nis = ne ys = is not;
nolde = ne wolde = would not; nel = ne will = will not (note mod. nil has survived from this construction)
Adjective placement
constructions like floures new where the adjective is after
the noun are allowed. This construction is evidence of the Norman/romantic influence
on English.
Chapter 20 Reading Concepts
Example: PIE
As mentioned last week, there is no written record of Proto-Indo-European; however, scholars have been able to use comparative reconstruction
to make some educated guesses about PIE. They have also used ideas about the connection between language and culture to infer some information about this
pre-writing language.
Fun facts about PIE:
Form--based on majority principle and etymology
3 grammatical genders
declinations on nouns and verbs
vowel alteration to change tense (e.g.: sing, sang, sung)
small number of consonants and vowels; the notation
scholars use for the consonants they infer are h1,
h2, h3. We don't know how these
consonants would have been pronounced.
Meaning--language and culture connections
one generic term for metal: suggests that
the people who spoke this language used copper only;
they did not know about bronze or iron. This suggests that
PIE was spoken before 3300 BCE, before the start of the
Bronze Age.
at least 2 levels of social organization: household
and larger clan. There was also a unit of family--people related by blood and marriage.
The PIE word for "household" is the distant anscestor of the mod. Eng. word domestic, and the
word that referred to "family" has survived as mod. Eng. generation. The word for "clan"
has become the mod. Eng. economics--the meaning shifted to something like "household management" and
then became connected to money management more generally as those systems developed in European culture.
there was a word for bride-price, so it seems that men
had to pay a woman's family to marry her--the inverse of the idea of
a dowry that was popular in later Western cultures.
PIE speakers could count to 10, but after that there is a word for larger amounts that has survived as the
term for mod. Eng hundred, but it seems likely that to PIE speakers it just meant "lots"
There are PIE words for leader and king, which suggests a hierarchical structure
to their society.
PIE speakers practices a polytheistic religion, and while the name of few of their divinities have been
reconstructed, at least one is known, the sky father who was the precursor of Zeus in Greek mythology
PIE speakers were pastoral; there are many words for animals they tended, and in particular terms related
to rearing and tending sheep
PIE speakers also practiced agriculture: these terms have been harder to reconstruct, but there were at
least 2 terms that translate to the mod. Eng. grain that most likely would have named different
crops in PIE.
There is also a term for axle, suggesting that PIE speakers had chariots: this finding helps
place PIE speakers on a timeline--archaeological evidence suggests that no one had this technology earlier than
4000 BCE, so PIE would have still been a unified language at this time.
for more information, see Trask, R. L. Why Do Languages Change? New York: Cambridge UP, 2010.
Example 2: Language and Color
Analysis
How does this example demonstrate principles of the relationship between language and culture mentioned in your text--note specific concepts
Does this example make a case for linguistic relativity or linguistic determinism? Explain.
Chapter 5 Reading Concepts
All: Explain what a neologism is and why neologisms are possible in language.
Group A: Explain what etymology is and why it is important. How do you find a word's etymology?
Group B: Explain the relationship between borrowing and loan-translation/calque.
Group C:
Explain the distinction between compounding and the more specific form of word formation, blending.
Give an example of each that is not mentioned in the chapter.
Group D: Explain what clipping is and differentiate between these types of clipping: hypocorism and backformation
Group A: Explain conversion and give two examples that are not mentioned in the chapter.
Group B: Explain the distinction between coinage and the more specific form of word formation, the eponym.
Group C: Explain why acronyms are a type of coinage, and give an example of an acronym that is not mentioned in the chapter.
Group D: Explain how prefixes, suffixes, and infixes are types of derivations.
Analysis
Why do you think that as English evolved, the main method for forming new words shifted from compounding to derivation?
Identify types of word formation from this chapter that seem particularly responsive to or depending on cultural trends/discourse/change -- explain your choices.
What are some new words you've noticed lately. Do you know where they came from? Could you find out? Explain.
Unit 2: Language and Culture
Week 4: Wednesday 2/2
Definitions
Chapter 20: Language and Culture
culture
ideas and assumptions about the nature of things and people that we learn when we become the members of social groups
category
group with certain features in common; when we learn new things, we categorize them according to classifications we
already know
lexicalized categories
concepts that can be described with a single term; for example, color terms--red, yellow, green, etc. are an example of a
lexicalized grouping that describes the culturally-specific classification scheme for color.
linguistic determinism
the idea that if a concept is not named in a language, it cannot be understood/perceived by the speakers of that language.
This idea began as the Sapir-Wolf hypothesis based on the work of scholars researching the languages of tribes in the Arctic.
linguistic relativity
idea that is dominant among contemporary scholars that the lexical categories of a language describes and influences the world-view/perspective
of the speakers of that language.
Chapter 5: Word Formation
neologism
general term for a new word that becomes accepted and used in a language. There are many different ways that new words are
formed.
etymology
the history of a word, including the history of where its antecedants were borrowed from (if applicable) or how it was
coined (if know). Diachronic dictionaries, like the Oxford English Dictionary, record etymologies in detail. Most dictionaries will
provide at least a brief etymology for words.
borrowing
importing a word, including its orthography, from one language into another one. (e.g. kindergarten)
loan translation or calque
importing a word or concept, but with a literal translation of its components, from one language into another one. (e.g. importing Ger. Wolkenkratz as "sky scraper")
compounding
combining 2 or more words to form a new, single word. In English, compounding sometimes begins with a hyphenated form before
the compound as a single word is adopted.
blending
combining 2 words to form a new, single word, but through a process of combinding the beginning of one word with the
ending of another word. Also called a portmanteau. (e.g. breakfast + lunch = brunch)
clipping
forming a new word by shortening an existing word
hypocorism
type of clipping where after a word is shortened, an -ie or -y is added. This word formation strategy is seen more in
British English (e.g. telly, brekie)
backformation
type of clipping where a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb) e.g.: automation → automate
conversion
when a word shifts from one part of speech to another.
coinage
terms invented "from scratch" that come in to common use
eponym
type of coinage where the new word is based on a proper noun--often the name of a person
acronym
type of coinage where the new word is created by taking the first letter of a series of words
derivation
units of meaning are added to an existing word to alter the meaning. affixes are typically used in derivations.
affix
morphemes that can be used to transform the meanings of existing words
preffix
type of affix attached to the beginning of a word to create a derivation
suffix
type of affix attached to the end of a word to create a derviation
infix
type of affix inserted into the middle of a word to create a derviation. Infixes are rarely used in English
in-class exercise #3: word formation
As you read in Chapter 5, language changes organically, but also can be influenced by individuals. The successful example of quiz
(see OED)
and the unsuccessful attempt to introduce the new pronoun thon are examples of intentional language change. In this exercise, you'll experiment with identifying
and filling the gaps in English.
Create a series of new words--1 for each member of the group. You must demonstrate
at least
3
different techniques of word formation among your list. You can (but do not have to) apply multiple
techniques to a single word.
Identify language gaps where there is insufficient vocabulary in English to
describe an action, thing, or characteristic. These gaps may be related to
a new phenomenon or process that has become popular but does not have a convenient
descriptor or for a feeling or perspective that could be more consistently and
accurately described with a new term. List possible gaps:
Discuss these possibilities, and come to a decision about which of these gaps
you will try to fill; choose 3.
Once you've determined the ideas you will try to address, see if there is an
existing term that might fill that need
Try the Reverse Dictionary to look up possible terms based on definition
Try Google Translate to search for foreign words. You might start with common languages that English has borrowed from in the past and then move to other languages
Try the Urban Dictionary existing neologisms, coinages, and eponyms.
Try the Portmanteau Generator for suggestions for blended words once you have an idea.
if you do not find an existing word, coin a new term.
Logan Pearsall Smith, a nineteenth-century linguist, advocated "vivid
expressive words, English in shape and sound,
and formed according to the traditions of the language." You don't
have to follow these recommendations, but you should have a
rationale for the coinage you come up with. Some good places to start
are strategies listed in Chapter 5:
Note your terms and define them. Then explain how you came up
with each term and why you used this method. If you have more than
one possibility, that's fine: the class can
help determine the strongest suggestion.
As you know, it's not easy to get a new word to be broadly adopted.
Brainstore some possible strategies for popularizing your term.
Be prepared to explain what you
believe the most effective strategies for popularizing your new
terms would be.
SL Chapter 18: Regional Variation in Language (pp. 279-288)
SL Chapter 19: Social Variation in Language (pp. 295-305)
More Examples
language comparison: example of language difference--Chinese and alphabetization
coinage by analogy: phishing and smishing?
language and culture--what do you think of this sartorial example....?
Class Dictionary
cloud • storm' • ing (v)
ety: compound of cloud + storming
creation of a new technology that there is no word for.
fows' (adj)
ety: acronym of feeling of wet socks
disagreeable feeling of wearing wet socks
glug • gaish' (n)
ety: borrowing from Icelandic gluggaveður
weather that is pretty to look at, but that you would not want to be out in;
window weather
gome' (v)
ety: blending of going + home
in • com' • om (adj)
ety: borrowing from Spanish incomod(a/o) + blending Zoom
The feeling of awkwardly trying to leave a video conference call
hug • stake' (n)
ety: blending of hug + mistake + handshake
phenomenon of going in for a hug when the other person is expecting a handshake
inter • items (n)
ety: derivation: prefix inter + items
contents of purse, bag, packpack, or other container
in • tumb' (adj)
ety: blending of internet + dumb
when the internet is glitching
keir' • ik (adj)
ety: coinage
experiencing a feeling that cannot be put into words
sner' (n)
ety: coinage
feeling of being thankful for something, but also being angry that
the event occurred.
targ' • a • holic (n)
ety: blending and derivation of Target + suffix aholic
person who is addicted to shopping at big box stores
trop' shop' (n)
ety: clipping of tropical + shop
term for a tropical smoothie cafê
woss' (adj)
ety: clipping of wordless
describes state of not having words to explain a situation
wyt • wab' (n)
ety: coinage; acronym of when you think
you're being waved + at + but...
term for when you think you're being waved at, but the wave is actually directed
at the person behind you
Chapter 18 Reading Concepts
All: Explain the difference between accent and dialect.
Group A and Group B: Explain the difference between isoglosses and dialect boundaries.
Group C: and Group D: Explain the difference between pidgins and creoles and how they develop
in relation to an existing language.
Accent or Dialect?
Analysis
How might creoles and pidgins be thought of as responses to invasive cultural contact?
How does language planning affect everyday life? Give some examples of good and poor language planning that you've noticed
(or can think back and identify now that you know language planning is a thing).
Chapter 19 Reading Concepts
Social Variation in Language
Analysis
How does Key & Peele's recurring skit featuring Luther, President Obama's anger translator, play on the idea of style-shifting?
What other sociolinguistics principles are suggested by this example--consider, for instance, why does President Obama need an anger translator?
Analysis
What connections does this video make between variations in language and other powerful social structures.
How does code switching function as a defense mechanism for those who are disempowered in our society?
How can understanding the relationship between language prestige and oppressive cultural structures of power help
address those problems--think of specific situations: how could education in K-12 do a better job of using what we know about
language to address these issues?
Unit 2: Language and Culture
Week 5: Wednesday 2/9
Definitions
Chapter 18: Regional Variation in Language
accent
the individual patterns of language use by actual users.
dialect
systematic patterns in language use that diverge from "standard" within
an defined group of speakers (often defined geographically)
isoloss
systematic differences in diction (word choice) by a definted group of
speakers
dialect boundary
geographical location where language use patterns change. Dialect
boundaries can be identified by charting the use of isoglosses
pidgin
a contact language created when speakers of two different
languages each make accomodations in order to be understood. The resulting
language is organized around a specific task or practical purpose, and
may not account for large other areas of language use. There are no
native speakers of a pigin language.
creole
a contact language that may begin as a pigin or as a result
of a language use mandate by one culture on another that blends two
languages and ends up as a fully functional language in its own right. Creoles
endure over generations, meaning that eventually there are native speakers.
language planning
creating infrastructure (road signs, system of interpreters, etc) and
analysis based on the language needs of a community.
Chapter 19: Social Variation in Language
AAVE, AAE
African-American Vernacular English, African-American English. One of many valid dialects of English.
EAE
Edited American English. The prestige version of English.
speech community
People who share a set of norms and expectations in how language is used
sociolinguistics
study of the connection between language and society
sociolects
speech differentiations influenced by a speaker's class
ideolect
speech differentiations influenced by a speaker's native langugae,
educational background, occupation, and parent or primary caregiver's ideolect
social marker
distinctive speech sound that correlates with high precision to a person's class status
speech style
the selection of words and phrases based on the level of formality desired;
also described in terms of "careful" or "casual" speech
overt prestige
the explicit preference for a certain dialect, for example strictly
grading papers for grammatical errors to enforce the conventions
of standard English
covert prestige
the implicit preference for a certain dialect, for example,
a speaker may choose to use AAVE, even though it is marginalized
compared to EAE, in order to demonstrate pride in membership in the African-American community.
accomodation
working to bridge misunderstandings by changing one's
speech style
style-shifting or code switching
the ability to move between registers or speech styles depending
on the discursive situation. For non-dominant groups in a society,
style-shifting may be necessary to access the prestige dialect
of communication.
register
conventional way of using language in a specific situational,
occupational, or topical context
jargon
special technical vocabulary of a specific occupation or situation
slang
words or prhases used by younger speakers or other groups with a special interest
taboo
words or phrases that are typically avoided because they are deliberately provoking, controversial, or judged to be "out of bounds" by social conventions.
vernacular
non-standard spoken version of a language. Vernaculars may
have distinct grammars from standard versions of a language.
in-class exercise #4: slang in social context
In this exercise, we'll examing slang and its connection to broader social context in more detail by exploring historical slang and
slang today.
Read the first two paragraphs of the Preface starting on page v. and the first paragraph of the
"History of Slang" starting on page 33
and the second paragraph on page 34 up to "...any respectable History of England." Working with your group, come up with a definition of Slang based on what you have read.
Be sure to take into account the cultural context and explain the cultural inflections/connotations as well as the overt meaning. Compare this definition to the definition in your textbook (p. 290).
Work with your group to choose some words to examine in more detail as indicated below. Use the dropdown list in the top right to jump from part to part in the electronic text.
Group A: A-F (Part IV-XIV, pp. 65-139)
Group B: G-L (Part XIV-XX, pp. 139-175)
Group C: M-R (Part XX-XXVI, pp. 175-217)
Group D: S-Z (Part XXVI-XXXIII, pp. 217-274)
Find at least one word that still exists today, but that has a different meaning; note the term and definition from the dictionary and the meaning today:
Find at least one word that is related to a specific cultural practice that no longer exists; note the term and definition, as well as the cultural practice
it is related to (you may need to do some additional research to find out more about this practice):
Find at least one word that has a history about its development or additional information about etymology or an anecdote; note the term and definition
as well as the story of the word (you can briefly paraphrase):
Find a word that still exists today and retains the same (or approximately the same) meaning as in the slang dictionary; note the term and definition:
Part 2: Analysis
Do you think your word from 2a. is related at all to the existing word today--explain:
How would you describe the connection between culture and slang based on your work in 1., 2b., and 2c.?
Why do you think some slang survives and becomes part of standard English (as in 2d.)? What does an example like this suggest about how
language changes over time?
If you wish, you can check the frequency of use of any of the terms you are analyzing using the Google Ngram Viewer.
Part 3: Modern Slang
Use the Urban Dictionary to locate a new slang term that is related to a
specific cultural practice that is familiar to you. Choose a term from within your group's section of the alphabet from Part 1 above and do the following:
Identify the term and definition
Identify the process by which the term was formed (borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, etc.)
Explain the cultural context for the term
Explain whether you think the term will persist and become standardized--why/why not?
study of what speakers mean as language is used
in context
invisible meaning
meaning that is understood but not said or written
physical context
literal surroundings of a text that provide information, e.g. "Exit" sign placed over a door
linguistic context/cotext
context of an utterance based on the words around it
deictic expressions
"pointing" expressions: these need to be in context
in order to be understood
person deixis
pronouns and phrases that point to specific
people
spatial deixis
words like "here" or "there" that point to
something in space/location
temporal deixis
words like "yeterday" or "tomorrow" that
point to something in time
range of reference
the possible spectrum of available meanings that make sense
in a given context
inference
information used by a listener to make sense of the
meaning encoded by a speaker
antecedant
specific person, place, or thing that a pronoun or
deictic phrase refers to
anaphora
pattern of reference where a more general pronoun, noun,
or noun phrase is substituted for an antecedant in a subsequent
reference
cataphora
pattern of reference where a more general pronoun, noun,
or noun phrase is substituted for an antecedant in a preceeding
reference; this structure is rarely used in English
presupposition
underlying assumptions evident in an utterance
direct speech acts
using the appropriate form to suit a communication purpose,
so, using a question (interrogative) to elicit information, for example.
indirect speech acts
using a form that does not directly address the purpose
of a communication--for example, using a question (interrogative)
instead of a command
to request an action out of politeness
in-class exercise #5: pragmatics and discourse analysis
Part 1. Pragmatics: Analysis
Group A: Explain how the cartoon to the right demonstrates the importance of pragmatics--be sure to define what pragmatics is in the
course of your explanation.
Group B: As mentioned in the chapter, anaphora is more common than cataphora in English. How might the dominance of anaphora reflect a specific type of cultural logic related
to English grammar?
Group C: List as many pragmatic markers in common use as you can. Categorize them into groups based on their basic function--place holder, intensifier, interrogative, or
any other functions that apply.
Group D: Linguistics and discourse analysis scholars have studied face as a cultural phenomenon, reflecting values about social interactions between people.
List some common situations where face-threatening and face-saving behaviors and language come into play in our culture. In what ways is
face related to other social structures for organizing people?
Part 2. Discourse Analysis Reading Concepts (Chapter 11)
All: Based on the information given in the chapter, explain in your own words what discourse analysis is.
Group A: Explain what cohesion and cohesive ties are.
Group B: Explain what coherence is, and explain the difference between cohesion and coherence.
Group C: Explain what turns/turn-taking and completion points are and why they are important to conversation analysis.
Group D: Explain what an adjacency pair is and give an example of a common adjacency pair that is not given in the chapter.
Group A: Explain what an insertion sequence is and give an example of a communication with an insertion sequence that is not mentioned in the chapter.
Group B: What are the four maxims of Grice's co-operation principle? Identify them and explain what each means in your own words.
Group C: Explain what a hedge is and give an example that is not given in the chapter.
Group D: Explain what an implicature is, and give an exapmle of a communication situation where there is implicature that is not mentioned in the chapter.
Part 3. Discourse Analysis Exercise
Example: How does the cartoon below rely on specific cultural schemas? Identify each.
Example: Analyze the cultural discourse in the historical cartoon below. Be sure to identify the basic meaning,
cultural source (another culture, another time period, etc.) as well as analyzing the specific discursive elements more specifically.
Use discourse analysis to analyze the cartoons in your group's set. Identify the cultural and/or historical information you needed to research to
understand the discourse, as applicable. Be prepared to explain your examples to the class.
Group A: Explain what a morpheme is and give examples to demonstrate the difference between free morphemes and
bound morphemes.
Group B: Explain the difference between and give examples of lexical morphemes and functional morphemes
Group C: Explain the difference between and give examples of derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes
Group D: Explain morphs and allomorphs and give an example of an allomorph (with multiple constituents).
Application
Divide your assigned sentence into all of its morphemes and label each one (functional, lexical, derivational, inflectional)
Group A: Do you know how many hours I've been waiting?
Group B: She's younger than me and always dresses in the latest style
Group C: We looked through my grandmother's old photograph albums
Group D: My parents' parents were all from Scotland
Analysis
Identify all of the morphs in the English allomorph for signaling negation. Give examples of words using each of the morphs you identify, and
explain what kind of morphemes make up this set. Why do you think there are so many members in this class?
Chapter 8 Reading Concepts
Group A: Explain what is meant by syntax and syntactic analysis (generally).
Group B: How is syntactic analysis
related to generative grammar? (Be sur to explain what generative grammar is.)
Group C: Explain the difference between surface structure and deep structure and give an example (that is not from the
chapter) to illustrate the difference.
Group D: Explain structural ambiguity and give an example (that is not from the chapter) to illustrate this principle.
Exericse
Explain what each of these phrase structure formulas means and give an example that follows the formula:
S → NP VP
NP → Art (Adj) N
VP → V NP
Draw a tree diagram for your assigned sentence below.
Group A: This is a short sentence.
Group B: The author's first book was an international bestseller.
Group C: Take the number 2 train.
Group D: Go outside if you get too hot.
Unit 3: Nuts and Bolts
Week 7: Wednesday 2/23
in-class exercise #6: is there a linguistic fingerprint?
During the first two units, we've explored the development of language and how
language is an extremely versitile and responsive tool of culture.
Language registers changes in culturual ideas and contact between cultures and
many other social factors. But is language use also a distinctive feature
of individual identity?
For decades, scholars and forensic scientists have argued "yes," and new
computerized analysis methods have made detailed examinations of texts more
nuanced than ever, to the point that some scholars believe they can identify the
authorship of unattributed texts (for example, "Plagiarism Software Unveils a New Source for 11 of Shakespeare’s Plays").
In this exercise, you will use a type of quantitative textual analysis
to examine a small corpus of work by a single author, and then you will
examine a set of unattributed sample texts to determine which one(s) (if any)
were written by the same author.
Part 1: Quantitative Analysis
1. Go to Canvas → Files → ic06_corpus_complete.text. Copy the contents of the file.
2. Go to data * yze Readability Analyzer.
and paste the copied data into the textbox on the left. Click on "Analyze" and note these key
characteristics of the corpus:
Control Data:
Record these key characterisitcs of the corpus:
Number of Sentences:
Average Words/Sentence:
Average Characters/Word:
Percentage of Difficult Words:
Reading Ease:
Flesch:
Gunning Fog Scale:
Grade Level:
Flesch-Kincaid:
Fry Readability:
Read the explanations in the ? for the readability and grade level scales so that you
understand what the numeric scores mean. Describe the results from those scales based
on what you learn here:
Sample Data
1. Repeat this data collection for each of the comparison samples:
"ic07_comparison_color.txt" (where color is the various sample identifiers--blue,
orange, green, etc.).
2. Explain which sample(s) (if any) you believe to be written by the the
author of the corpus and explain why you think this is so.
Be prepared to
present your findings to the class.
Part 2--Qualitative Analysis
Skim through the main corpus. Note any distinctive characteristics:
Evaluate each of the samples (each member of the group might compare one to the
main corpus if you wish). Identify any that you think are written by the same author.
Explain why you think so; be as specific as possible:
Evaluate your answers compared to the answers for Part 1:
Discussion
After completing this exercise, are you more or less convinced that
individuals have a linguistic fingerprint? Explain.
Do you think that computer-aided analysis is more effective than
qualitative evaluation of texts for identifying authorship? Explain.
Group A: Identify all of the parts of speech in the traditional grammar view of English. Give an example
of each part of speech (that is not given in the chapter, when possible).
Group B: Explain what is meant by grammatical agreement, and give separate examples to illustrate agreement in gender,
number, and person.
Group C: Explain what is meant by subject-verb agreement, and give separate examples to illustrate subject-verb agreement using
different verb tenses (past, present, future).
Group D: Explain what is meant by descriptive grammar, and explain structural analysis and constituent analysis:
why are these classified as types of descriptive approaches and what is the difference between them?
Part 2: Application
1. Identify all of the parts of speech in your assigned sentence, and then identify all of the grammatical functions for elements of your sentence.
Group A: I have been waiting for many hours in the waiting room.
Group B: She is younger than me and always dresses in the latest style
Group C: We looked through my grandmother's old photograph albums
Group D: My parents' parents were all from Scotland
2. Draw a tree diagram to represent the structure of your sentence (see p. 118 for examples)
Part 3: Analysis
The end of the chapter makes a case for why it is important to study grammar. Do you agree? Why/why not? Are there any other reasons that the study of
grammar may be important to you? Explain.
Unit 3: Nuts and Bolts
Week 8: Wednesday 3/2
Reading: Kolln and Gray, Rhetorical Grammar (hereafter RG)
Introduction (pp. 1-3)
Part I (p. 5)
Chapter 1 (pp. 6-16)
Review:
We have encountered a number of systems for thinking about language and meaning. Work with your group to fill in the summary table below.
Language Systems
System
Scope of Study
Important Terms
phonetics
morphology
syntactics (syntax)
grammar
pragmatics
discourse anlaysis
Reading Concepts
How is grammar defined in this text, and how
does this definition align/fit in with other concepts
we've discussed in relation to grammar--
prescriptive,
descriptive
, and generative in particular or others
that you think are relevant.
How is rhetoric defined in this text? What
writing choices are related to the rhetorical aspect of your
writing, according to this author? What is rhetorical grammar,
and how is this concept related to other concepts we've studied?
What is the difference between determiners and articles
--define and give examples of each. Then, explain when determiners are not needed in a
noun phrase.
Identify the different elements of a prepositional phrase. Then explain
the difference between adjectival and adverbial
prepositional phrases.
Homework #1
Due: in class 3/2
Mechanics
Ex 1 #1-3, 5 (p. 9-10)
Ex 2 #1-5 (p. 11)
Ex 3 #1-3 (p. 15)
Analysis
1. From page 8: write a pair of short sentences for each of the following words, demonstrating that they can be either nouns or verbs
visit
plant
point
2. Explain how the versatility of words such as these supports the form class view of grammar.
Upcoming Assignments
Homework #2
Due: in class on 3/14
Complete the exercises below and bring to class. You may complete these electronically or by hand.
When giving examples, create examples that are not in the chapter.
Group A: Identify the four verb categories and give an example of each kind of verb.
Group B: Explain the difference between sentence patterns 1 and 2 and give an example of each.
Group C: Explain the similarities and differences between sentence patterns 2 and 3.
Give an example of pattern 3.
Group D: Explain pattern 4, and give an example with an optional adverbial.
Group A: Explain pattern 5, and give an example.
Group B: Explain the difference between patterns 6 and 7.
How can you tell the difference between the two--what questions can you ask?
Group C: Explain what interrogative and imperative sentences are.
Do these fit the 7 sentence patterns? Explain.
Group D: Explain what is meant by the punctuation rule "Do not mark boundaries of the required sentence units
with punctuation" (30)--that is, what is a required sentence unit and how is this
idea related to the sentence patterns?
Exercise
Identify the elements listed below for your assigned sentences. Be prepared to explain your answers.
Identify the sentence pattern
Identify the key elements of the baseline of the sentence (e.g.,
subject, verb, subject compliment,
direct object, indirect object, object compliment
as applicable)
Identify any optional adverbials as applicable.
Sentences
Example: Nervously, I unfolded the wrinkled and stained letter from my long-dead grandmother. (pattern 5)
Group A: The electric guitar has played an important role in our culture. (pattern 5)
Group B: Experience Music Project has an exhibit of famous guitars. (pattern 5)
Group C: The exhibit includes Jimi Hendrix's Fender Stratocaster from the Woodstock Festival in 1969. (pattern 5)
Group D: I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station. (pattern 4)
Group A: The car drove around the corner. (pattern 4)
Group B: The cat and dog ate their food in the kitchen. (pattern 5)
Group C: John was eating and talking at the same time. (pattern 4)
Group D: My parents and I went to a movie downtown. (pattern 4)
Homework Check
Ex 4 #1-8 (p. 21)
Ex 5 #1-4 (p. 26)
Unit 3: Nuts and Bolts
Week 10: Wednesday 3/16
in-class exercise #8: diagramming sentences
Examples
Nervously, I unfolded the wrinkled and stained letter from my long-dead grandmother.
The car drove around the corner.
Peace between the two nations had seemed an impossibility.
John was eathing and talking at the same time.
Identification and Diagramming
Identify the sentence pattern. Diagram the sentences below. Each group will diagram
all 12 sentences, but take note where your group should start working; Groups B, C, and D should
move on to sentence 1 after finishing sentence 12.
Group A start here: Scurvy was a serious problem for men at sea.
Dr. James Lind fed six groups of scurvy victims six different remedies.
The men consumed oranges and lemons every day.
Group B start here: Interestingly, Lind's discovery also affected the English language.
In the eighteenth century, the British called lemons "limes."
Because of that navy diet, people call British sailors "limeys."
Group C start here: Which chapters will our test cover?
Come with me to the concert.
Paula's credit card application was approved.
Group D start here: Your suggestions will be given thoughtful consideration.
Those twelve 1943 copper pennies soon became valuable collectors' items.
Even after 100 years, the production of the Lincoln penny continues today.
Use a sample of your writing--several paragraphs that you can select sentences from--for this exercise. Work on your own to identify different elements of your sentences as indicated
below. Then work with your group to check your identifications.
Part 1: Identification
1. Identify one sentence from each member of your group to work on in this exercise. Choose sentences that are either compound or complex from
your sample. If you're not sure, ask for help. Once you've chosen your sentences, write down each one and further identify the elements of the sentence listed below.
The boundary of each clause--label each as independent or dependent.
Identify the sentence pattern for each clause.
Identify all verbs in your sentences. Indicate the time frame for each.
Identify any auxiliary verbs that are not part of a grammatical form--do or modal.
Identify any passive verbs: evaluate whether the passive is effective or unnecessary in your sentence.
2. Identify two sentences with parallel structures from among your group's samples (2 total). Further identify:
Identify what kind of parallel structure it is--for example, compound subject, predicate, direct object, etc.
Identify the form of each part of the parallel structure--for example Prep + Mod/Adj + NP or N or V + DO, etc.
Evaluate the structure: is the parallelism effective in terms of both form and content? Explain. Make edits if needed:
Part 2: Diagramming
Use your sentences from part 1 for this part
Diagram the baseline for each clause in 1.
Add in any modifiers you know how to diagram.
Ask for help with any structures that you don't know how to diagram.
Unit 4: Your Writing
Week 11: Wednesday 3/23
Reading:
RG Chapter 13 (pp. 221-229)
Online Class: Submit HW3 to Canvas as indicated below
Homework #3
Due: submit online by midnight 3/23
You may complete these electronically or by hand, but they must be submitted on Canvas.
Chapter 3 and Chapter 4
Ex 9A #1-2, 9B #1-2, 9C #1-2 (pp. 41-42)
Ex 13 #1-5 (pp. 56)
Ex 14 #1-4 (p. 66)
Chapter 13: Punctuation
Remove commas that are not needed here, and explain why you have removed them. If you think
all the commas are necesary, then explain why they are ok.
The pattern of the sentence is indicated after the sentence to help you.
One of Buckminster Fuller's earliest inventions, was a car shaped like a blimp. (2)
In Kate Chopin's, "Story of an Hour," the protagonist learns that her husband, Brenley Mallard, is dead. (5)
At the store, we bought grapes, and apples. (5)
At her birthday party, Leslie gave Bertha, the best present ever. (6)
After swimming, we ate hot dogs, and ran two miles today. (5/4)
Unit 4: Your Writing
Week 12: Monday 3/28
Reading:
RG Chapter 5 (pp. 76-90)
RG Chapter 6 (pp. 91-109)
RG Chapter 7 (pp. 110-122)
Discussion
Group A
(Ch 5) Define sentence modifier and give an example of this structure in a sentence.
When are these typically used?
(Ch 6) Although modifiers typically precede nouns in English, postheadword modifiers
are also possible: explain and give an example.
(Ch 7) What is a gerund phrase? Give an example. How can you ensure
that a gerund phrase isn't dangling?
Group B
(Ch 5) Explain how "of" prepositional phrases can replace the possessive (words with 's)
and give an example. When is this an effective choice in writing?
(Ch 6) Explain what a relative clause is and how it functions adjectivally. Give an example.
(Ch 7) What is the anticipatory it? When can it be effective in your writing?
Group C
(Ch 5) What is meant in the text by proliferation of prepositional phrases? What advice for writing
is given in relation to this issue?
(Ch 6) Explain what a broad reference clause is. Give an example.
Why should you avoid these in your writing? Give an example of how a broad reference can be edited.
(Ch 7) Explain what an appositive is. When are these used and how are they punctuated?
Given an example. What is a sentence appositive? Give an example.
Group D
(Ch 5) What is the because myth? What are the actual facts about how because
can be used?
Give an example that shows the myth is bogus.
(Ch 6) What is meant by restrictive and non-restrictive relative
clauses. Give an example of each.
(Ch 7) What is a nominal clause? How can you identify these clauses?
What functions in a sentence can they perform? Give an example.
Homework Check
Ex 16 (p. 78)
Ex 21 #1, 2, 4 (pp. 100-101)
Ex 22 #1-3 (p. 104)
Ex 26 #1-4 (pp. 118-119)
Unit 4: Your Writing
Week 12: Wednesday 3/30
Homework 3
Exercise 9: Active and Passive
9B2: Charles Babbage is considered a pioneer of computer science.
9C2: Mary Anderson was given a patent for windshield wipers in 1903.
Remove commas that are not needed here, and explain why you have removed them. If you think
all the commas are necesary, then explain why they are ok.
The pattern of the sentence is indicated after the sentence to help you.
One of Buckminster Fuller's earliest inventions, was a car shaped like a blimp. (2)
In Kate Chopin's, "Story of an Hour," the protagonist learns that her husband, Brenley Mallard, is dead. (5)
At the store, we bought grapes, and apples. (5)
At her birthday party, Leslie gave Bertha, the best present ever. (6)
After swimming, we ate hot dogs, and ran two miles today. (5/4)
in-class exercise #10: adverbials, adjectivals, and nominals
Choose 3 sentences from your writing sample to analyze and revise. You may use sentences
from In-Class #9--use my feedback to help you get started.
Analysis
Identify all of the adverbials in your sentence. Describe their forms and functions.
Identify all of the ajectivals in your sentence. Describe their forms and functions.
Identify all of the nominals in your sentence. Describe their forms and functions.
Example
As with many technologies we rely upon today, it is the ingnorability of the elevator that makes it so successful.
Adverbials:
Form--Dependent clause sentence modifier: As with many technologies we rely upon today (function = provide general information that modifies the entire sentence)
Form--ADV: today (function = mod "rely upon" to tell when)
Form--Prepositional phrase: with many technologies (function = mod "rely upon" answering what?)
Adjectivals:
Form--relative clause: that makes it so successful (function = mod "ignorability" to explain which kind)
Form--ADJ: many (function = mod "technologies"); so (function = intensifier mod. successful)
Form--Determiner: the (function = specify "ignorability," "elevator")
Form--Prepositional Phrase: of the elevator (mod "ignorability")
Nominals:
Form--pronoun: we (function: subject of dependent clause), it (anticipatory it, subject of main clause), it (DO of relative clause)
Form--noun: elevator (function: object of prep phrase)
Revision
Revise each of your sentences based on principles we have learned. Post your original sentences with the edited version in
the class collaboration file.
Use your initials + sentence number to identify each. Be ready to explain your edits in terms of grammatical form and function we have been discussing.
Diagramming
Choose one of your sentences and diagram the before and after versions.
Choose a short sample 500-750 words your writing to anlayze. The sample should be from one coherent piece of writing (not disjointed paragraphs from different things).
If you choose a creative writing sample, choose an appropriate-length sample of prose writing. If you choose an academic sample, an introduction and body paragraphs of a short paper
or several paragraphs from within a longer paper would be a good choice.
Use a sample that is polished and recent.
Part 1: Qualitative Analysis
complete before class on 4/4
To prepare for the workshop, complete
the counts in Exercise 15 pages 69-70 #1-9
counts in Exercise 28 pages 122 #1-4 (a, b, c under 3 are optional, but do complete 3 itself)
*Note: *If you wish, you may use the text analyzer to help you.
Go to the Word Counter & Text Analyzer
and use a digitized version of your sample and either paste it into the box.
Add your data to the class spreadsheet.
Be sure to add data to both tabs: one is marked Ex15 and the other Ex28. For Exercise 15, note the following:
headings marked in bold are fields you need to provide data for.
headings marked in red are fields you can leave blank: I'll create a formula to calculate those.
Notes:
Ex 15 #1 = "Total Word Count" in the analyzer
Ex 15 #5 = "Words per Sentence" in the analyzer
Figuring out how many words in each sentence: open your sample in Word. Highlight a sentence. Look in the
bottom left corner of the screen to see the word count for the sentence. You can use this technique
to find the longest and shortest sentence counts.
Ex 15 #6 misprint--this should read "total number of paragraphs"
Calculating the average number of sentences per paragraph: from the analyzer, take the "Number of Sentences" and
divide by the "Number of Paragraphs"
Ex 28 #6: "adverbial openers" can be single word adverbs, prepositional phrases, participle phrases, infinitive
phrases, or clauses--any opening structure that is functioning adverbially.
Part 2: Comparative Analysis
completed in class on 4/4
Compare your counts with the professional data given below:
Ex 15: Writing Analysis -- Professional Sample (academic writing)
Total # of words
2042
Total # of sentences
61
Longest sentences in # of words
85
Shortest sentence in # of words
16
Average sentence length
33
# paragraphs
8
longest paragraph (# sentences)
11
shortest paragraph (# sentences)
4
average paragraph length (# sentences)
7
Ex 28: Writing Analysis--Professional Sample (academic writing)
simple sentences
16
26% (n=61)
compound sentences
16
26%
complex
29
48%
with nominal clauses
2
7% (n=29)
with adjectival clauses
22
76%
with adverbial clauses
14
48%
opening adverbial
19
31%
Make some notes about:
How your writing compares to the professional sample
Distinctive traits that this numerical analysis reveals about your writing style
Strengths and weaknesses suggested by this statistical analysis that you should note while editing
Part 3: Cohesion, coherence, and clarity of thought (completed in class Monday 4/4)
Create an outline of your sample: look for topic sentences and the topics covered within each paragraph.
Evaluate your outline/sample for overall coherence. Note any issues that need to be addressed.
Check your sample for cohesion from sentence to sentence. Is there a clear connection between sentences?
Is the known-new principle operating? Have you made good use of end focus? Note any issues that need to be addressed.
Check your sample for pronouns: does each have a clear antecedent? Have you started any sentences with
a broad reference (This/these with no clear antecedent)? Note any issues that need to be addressed.
Switch samples with a partner and repeat steps 1-3. Discuss the results with your classmate
when you have completed your analysis, including any recommendations for edits.
Part 4: Editing
After the workshop, edit your sample* based on your analysis and bring the edited sample to class
for Workshop #1 on 4/6.
*Note: When editing your sample:
Save the original sample to a new file that uses the date in the filename (so now you have 2 copies, the original and the dated file)
Make changes in the new file with the date in the name
As you make changes, ensure that "Track Changes" is turned on in Word or that you are in "Suggesting" mode in GoogleDocs so that
your changes are clearly marked. You will do this for each version of your edited file.
Using Track Changes in Word
Go to the "Review" tab
Click "Track Changes" to turn the feature on
In the drop down list just to the right of the Track Changes button, make sure that "All Markup" is selected
Using Suggesting Mode in GoogleDocs
Look for the "Editing" button in the upper right corner of the file (it also has an icon of a pencil)
Click the button and select "Suggesting"
Unit 4: Your Writing
Week 13: Wednesday 4/6
Analysis of Student Writing vs. Professional Writing
Ex 15: Writing Analysis
Criteria
Professional
Student (avg)
Total # of words
2042
632
Total # of sentences
61
27
Longest sentences in # of words
85
43
Shortest sentence in # of words
16
9
Average sentence length
33
25
# paragraphs
8
5
longest paragraph (# sentences)
11
10
shortest paragraph (# sentences)
4
5
average paragraph length (# sentences)
7
8
Ex 28: Writing Analysis--Professional vs. Student (academic writing)
Sentence Type
Prof. %
Student % (avg)
simple sentences
26%
43%
compound sentences
26%
14%
complex
48%
35%
workshop #1: structure and coherence
Use your writing sample, with edits based on work from the Writing Self-Analysis.
Part 1. Peer Review
1. Switch samples with another student and make a reverse outline of your partner's sample:
Identify the topic of each paragraph--these will be the top-level
points of the outline
Identify supporting/subtopics within each paragraph: these will be
sub-level entries on the outline
Note in particulary any subpoints that don't belong with the paragraph
topic
Note any paragraphs that have multiple main topics--these can be
broken into multiple paragraphs.
Note any paragraphs that don't belong
Check the order of your first level points: do they make sense? If not, or
if it could be improved, note that here:
2. Analyze the transitions from topic to topic.
does it make sense to move from the previous topic to the next?
is it clear how the subsequent topic is related to the previous?
3. Are there any other editing suggestions you have? Remember, you are helping
each other by giving substantive, contructive feedback.
1. Start reviewing your sample for sentence-level edits. At this point, you can just identify
things that you think might need a closer look.
For next workshop
3. Make edits* to your sample based on the feedback from your peer
reviewer.
*Note: When editing your sample:
Save the original sample to a new file that uses the date in the filename (so now you have 2 copies, the original and the dated file)
Make changes in the new file with the date in the name
As you make changes, ensure that "Track Changes" is turned on in Word or that you are in "Suggesting" mode in GoogleDocs so that
your changes are clearly marked. You will do this for each version of your edited file.
Using Track Changes in Word
Go to the "Review" tab
Click "Track Changes" to turn the feature on
In the drop down list just to the right of the Track Changes button, make sure that "All Markup" is selected
Using Suggesting Mode in GoogleDocs
Look for the "Editing" button in the upper right corner of the file (it also has an icon of a pencil)
Click the button and select "Suggesting"
Upcoming Assignments
Workshop 2 Preparation
3. Make edits* to your sample based on Workshop 1 revision suggestions.
*Note: When editing your sample:
Save the original sample to a new file that uses the date in the filename (so now you have 2 copies, the original and the dated file)
Make changes in the new file with the date in the name
As you make changes, ensure that "Track Changes" is turned on in Word or that you are in "Suggesting" mode in GoogleDocs so that
your changes are clearly marked. You will do this for each version of your edited file.
Using Track Changes in Word
Go to the "Review" tab
Click "Track Changes" to turn the feature on
In the drop down list just to the right of the Track Changes button, make sure that "All Markup" is selected
Using Suggesting Mode in GoogleDocs
Look for the "Editing" button in the upper right corner of the file (it also has an icon of a pencil)
Click the button and select "Suggesting"
Unit 4: Your Writing
Week 14: Monday 4/11
workshop #2: syntax, patterns, and EAE
In this workshop, we will focus on sentence-level issues.
1. Read your sample out loud (quietly) to look for syntax issues.
check for missing words
check for sequences of words that sound odd or seem awkward to read
check for sentence errors--fragements or run-on sentences
be sure to mark any issues detected
2. Search your sample for common patterns that can indicate issues.
Search your sample for "this". If you find sentences staring "This is...",
your subject is unclear. Rewrite so that there is a modifying nominal phrase after
"This" ("This revision is...") or rewrite to replace "This" with a specific subject.
If you find "this" in the middle of your sentence, check to see if there is a clear
antecedant for "this." If not, replace it with a noun phrase or give it a clear
antecedant.
Search your sample for "it". If you find sentences starting "It is...", you are
using the existential it. This use of "it" might be ok--it can be used
to shift important information into the predicate, for example. Check your sentence
and see if this construction is necessary, or whether you can re-write with a more meaningful
subject. If you find "it" in the middle of a sentence, heck to see if there is a clear
antecedant for "this." If not, replace it with a noun phrase or give it a clear
antecedant.
Search your sample for "which". If you find sentences using "which" as a subject,
these are fragments. Rewrite them as complete sentences. If you find a "which" that is
part of a complete sentence, make sure it's not being used as a broad based reference.
If it is, give it a specific antecedant or add a noun phrase to clarify.
If your sample is formal academic writing, search for "we", "us", "you": re-write to
omit these references.
Look for other patterns that may attract negative attention:
Are you using the same sentence structure multiple sentences in a row?
Are you repeating a noticable word too frequently? (if it is a word related
to your topic, this might not be avoidable; aks me if you're not sure)
Are you varying your sentence lengths? (if not, you should--use short
sentences to focus attention and generate emphasis.)
3. Proofread your sample carefully for EAE issues. If you are using a fiction sample,
you may break EAE rules to achieve specific effects, but make sure you are breaking rules
intentionally and effectively. Mark any issues you find.
4. Edit your sample based on what you found in 1. through 3. above.
*Note: When editing your sample:
Save the original sample to a new file that uses the date in the filename (so now you have 2 copies, the original and the dated file)
Make changes in the new file with the date in the name
As you make changes, ensure that "Track Changes" is turned on in Word or that you are in "Suggesting" mode in GoogleDocs so that
your changes are clearly marked. You will do this for each version of your edited file.
Using Track Changes in Word
Go to the "Review" tab
Click "Track Changes" to turn the feature on
In the drop down list just to the right of the Track Changes button, make sure that "All Markup" is selected
Using Suggesting Mode in GoogleDocs
Look for the "Editing" button in the upper right corner of the file (it also has an icon of a pencil)
Click the button and select "Suggesting"
Unit 4: Your Writing
Week 13: Wednesday 4/13
workshop #3: Peer-Review
Part 1: Editing Analysis
Each student will explain briefly their editing process and writing:
What was a good characteristic of your writing that you identified?
Were there any habitual characteristics that you need to watch for an modify? If so, explain one.
Give 1 specific example of a change that you made and explain why.
Part 2: Peer Review
Switch samples with a partner. Discuss the results with your classmate when you have completed your analysis,
including any recommendations for edits.
Analyze for alignment of subjects/predicates and ideas. Look for "to be" verbs as main verbs in sentences--> are there more vivid verbs that could be used?
Look for passive constructions (you may
find these as you are looking for "to be" verbs)--is there a reason for the use of the passive in these cases or would restatement in active voice be
preferable? Identify any issue you discover.
Analyze for precise use of language. Are there any places where one, more precise word could be used instead of several words? When you are using
conjunctions like "and" are the ideas really additive? (or "but"→ really contrasting, etc.). When you are using logical connectors like "However" or
"Therefore" have you gone through a reasoning process in the previous sentences→ does the conclusion really follow or is the new idea really a contrast?
Are there any other issues where the language you are using is imprecise or where more accurate terms could be used? Identify any issues you discover.
Identify prepositional phrases and check for concision: that is, can the be phrased in a more concise way? Do you have any proliferating prepositional
phrases that could be reduced? Identify multiple word phrases that are idioms (verbs and other phrases). Can they be restated in fewer words?
Analyze for more complex rhetorical features: look for logical connectors like coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, adverbs like however,
therefore, etc., parallel structures, subordinate clauses, etc. and verify that these structures are conveying the logic you are trying to
communicate and that the structures are clear and concise.
Analyze for register/tone. Is your tone consistent throughout the piece? Does it have an appropriate academic register?
Look for use of pronouns (are there any "you"s or "we"s that need addressed? Even sentences with "one" could be restructured),
contractions (often these should not be included in academic writing), and colloquial speech/idioms (less formal types of speech) and mark any issues you discover.
Analyze each of the sentences of your new sample for correctness. Look for punctuation use, sentences that start with unclear subjects (this, it),
pronouns with broad or unclear antecedents, dangling participles, punctuation use etc., and mark any issues you discover.
Part 3: Editing
After the workshop, edit your sample based on your analysis. Submit your final edited copy and your Rationale by midnight, Wednesday 5/5
Using Track Changes in Word
Go to the "Review" tab
Click "Track Changes" to turn the feature on
In the drop down list just to the right of the Track Changes button, make sure that "All Markup" is selected
Using Suggesting Mode in GoogleDocs
Look for the "Editing" button in the upper right corner of the file (it also has an icon of a pencil)
Click the button and select "Suggesting"
Upcoming Assignments
Review Part 1 of the Final Project to see
which sentences you will work on. Start work on these and bring questions to class for the
Diagramming Workshop Monday.
Unit 4: Your Writing
Week 15: Monday 4/18
Easter Break--No Class
Unit 4: Your Writing
Week 15: Wednesday 4/20
workshop #4: diagramming work day
Open practice with diagramming. See the final project for more details.
Review diagramming structures
baselines
adjectives
adverbs
prepositional phrases
participle structures
dependent clause structures
Sign up for individual appointments in Week 16
Meetings will take place in St. Agnes Hall first floor main room.
Monday 4/25
Time
Student
1:00-1:15pm
1:15-1:30pm
1:30-1:45pm
1:45-2:00pm
2:00-2:15pm
2:15-2:30pm
2:30-2:45pm
2:45-3:00pm
3:00-3:15pm
3:15-3:30pm
3:30-3:45pm
3:45-4:00pm
Wednesday 4/27
Time
Student
1:00-1:15pm
1:15-1:30pm
1:30-1:45pm
1:45-2:00pm
2:00-2:15pm
2:15-2:30pm
2:30-2:45pm
2:45-3:00pm
3:00-3:15pm
3:15-3:30pm
3:30-3:45pm
3:45-4:00pm
Upcoming Assignments
Work on your Final Project in
preparation for your individual meeting next week.
